The Age of Sail: A Definitive Guide to Maritime History and Naval Warfare

The Age of Sail is a periodic era of human history whose focus lies primarily with the study of international maritime trade and naval warfare. The time frame coincides with that of the early modern period spanning the fifteenth or sixteenth through nineteenth centuries CE and overlaps with the Age of Discovery. As with many eras, the start and end dates are not definitive, and such dates vary depending on one’s perspective. Military historians place the start date following the Battle of Lepanto in 1571—the last major battle in which an oar-powered galley played a significant role—to the Battle of Hampton Rhodes in 1862, which saw the use of a steam-powered, iron-hulled vessel in combat. From an economic standpoint, historians place the start of the era with Portuguese expansion and the beginning of a global trade network during the first half of the fifteenth century and conclude during the latter half of nineteenth century when steam-powered vessels carried more cargo than sailing vessels did.

The era received its name from the fabric sails that were rigged aboard a vessel to catch the wind and propel the vessel forward through the water. By utilizing the sail, European explorers began to spread out of the continent and beyond their established trade routes in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea to find new global markets in Africa and Asia. The opening of these markets sped the transition from feudal to mercantile economies. Improved sailing technology allowed Europeans to sail the open ocean rather than hugging the coastline as had been common practice. Sailing technology led to one of the greatest immigrations in human history as Europeans began to settle around the Earth. Sailing technology would eventually allow sailors to circumnavigate the globe.

Sailing technology was also incorporated into naval warfare, which dramatically changed the nature of ship-to-ship combat. Because oar-powered galleys were labor-intensive and remained close to shore, much of naval combat was conducted in close quarters by ramming and boarding opposing vessels or by utilizing primitive ranged instruments like bow and arrow. In contrast, the sailing ship allowed for interior deck space to be filled with powerful ranged weaponry like cannon as opposed to oarsmen. Naval strategy opted for striking from afar and using superior seamanship to place one’s vessel in a dominant position allowing one to overcome an enemy vessel and force its submission. When sailing, as part of a fleet, vessels were placed in lines parallel to one another and staggered in such a manner that to avoid exposing the vulnerable bow and stern. With heavy cannons, naval vessels were also increasingly utilized for shore bombardments against enemy land positions. The most well-known naval battle of the Age of Sail is the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), in which the ships of the British Royal Navy faced off against the combined fleets of the French and Spanish navies.

From an economic perspective, the Age of Sail directly correlates with the rise of mercantilism. Large sailing vessels were able to traverse the world’s oceans, enabling trade between cultures that might otherwise have been impossible or limited by the carrying capacity of overland travel. Europeans created vast trading corporations like the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (Dutch East India Company) and the East India Company (Great Britain) that conducted international trade and helped further their respective nations’ colonial ambitions. Large-scale trading fleets were not exclusive to Europe, and empires such as the Ottomans and Chinese sent out sailing fleets of their own. Vast global trading networks were formed from these trade missions.

The Age of Sail came to a close with the advent of steam-powered technology. Once steam-driven vessels were powerful enough to traverse the open seas, the use of sailing vessels saw a precipitous decline. Although sailing vessels were cheaper to operate, the speed of steam-powered vessels ensured the end of the sailing ships for commercial and military use. Influential ships of the Age of Sail include the Portuguese caravel and carracks, the Spanish galleon, the Dutch fluyt, the British ship of the line, and the American clipper. Christopher MacMahon.

FURTHER READING:Blackmore, David. 2011. Warfare on the Mediterranean in the Age of Sail: A History, 1571-1866. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Jefferson, Sam. 2014. Clipper Ships and the Golden Age of Sail. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Volo, Dorothy Denneen and James M. Volo. 2001. Daily Life in the Age of Sail. Westport, CT: Greenwood.