Adventures of Huckleberry Finn: Twain's Controversial Classic

Censorship and Narrative Challenges. Nearly a decade after the publication of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn returned readers to Twain's St. Petersburg, Missouri, this time presenting the story from a different child's perspective. But Huck Finn's adventures are anything but childish. Focusing on the difficult topic of slavery and racism and often using less than socially acceptable language, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a challenging read. Furthermore, the book has often faced severe criticism, both from reviewers and from the general public, and schools and libraries, many of which have banned the work from their shelves. Perhaps it is the genuine good nature of both Huck and Jim that keeps readers turning its pages. Twain himself, in a retrospective personal journal entry, noted that the central conflict of the novel is revealed when Huck's "sound heart and . . . deformed conscience come into collision and conscience suffers defeat" (Notebook number 35).

Hindsight may have offered Mark Twain such a vantage point, but while writing the novel he was often stuck with writer's block. Literary biographers seem to agree that Twain began to focus on Huck Finn and his narrative before he had finished writing The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Both books develop his childhood memories of Hannibal, Missouri, in the fictionalized St. Petersburg and rely on the interesting and vexing contradictions in a young boy's view of the world. During the composition of Huckleberry Finn, two particular issues seem to have caused the author considerable trouble. The first—when Huck and Jim miss the fork in the river that would have enabled them to follow the Ohio north to freedom—caused a several-year block in the novel's progress. How could Twain right such an oversight that defied logic and rationality? The fog may have added a new challenge to Jim and Huck's quest for freedom, but Jim's choice to continue into the Deep South, known for its treacherous slave practices, simply could not be squared with the character or the setting. The second—the final chapters on the Phelps farm—posed a similar problem and slowed the writing process as Twain again struggled to square Jim's character. Not only is Huck's decision to accept Tom's escape plan questionable, Huck, whom we have seen grow and mature during his trek down the river, significantly falls short of our expectations of a hero. While it may be argued that Twain never really resolved these narrative defects, and instead merely persevered and pressed on, the novel's completion raised more than questions of plot defects.

In fact, Huckleberry Finn has faced severe censorship. Even before the novel was published in its entirety, publishers questioned its content. The Century Magazine, a popular literary publication of the 19th century, published excerpts of the novel but made alterations to delete or change references to nakedness, dead cats, and other unsavory details (Kaplan 10). Even Twain censured the illustrations E. W. Kemble provided for his novel. Several illustrations never made it to print, and one, which was included in the first printing, had to be manually excised from every edition because of its lewd depiction of Uncle Silas (Kaplan 11). The questionable terminology and distasteful illustrations called Twain's "decency and morality" into question, even by Twain's own publishing house (qtd. in Kaplan 11). Even when Huckleberry Finn was published with its expurgated illustrations, it continued to raise questions of appropriateness. Such questions culminated in the Concord (Massachusetts) Public Library's decision to ban the book, claiming that it was "trash and suitable only for the slums" (qtd. in Kaplan 11). Other libraries followed suit, and Huckleberry Finn continues to be banned today from some library and schoolhouse shelves.

Slavery, Racism, and Historical Context. Since the issues of racism and slavery raised by the novel's narrative have caused the greatest and longest-lasting concern in regard to this novel's appropriateness, any attempt at a comprehensive discussion of the work must include, if not focus on, these concerns. By the end of the novel, Twain's message appears to be clear: Slavery is a social evil romanticized by the social conscience, represented by Tom Sawyer, revolted against by the truly civilized, like Huck, and endured by the unfortunate Jim. But the hardships, especially those faced by Jim throughout his journey to freedom, and especially in the "attempted" escape from the Phelps, are difficult for a modern reader to comprehend. It is clear that Twain has made farcical the absurd inhumanity of slavery through his darkly comic rendering of Jim's tests and trials, but it is difficult to integrate Twain's message with his method.

In fact, Twain's parody of America's struggle with the most divisive social issue that characterized his historical moment draws heavily on his own life experience. As a child in a Southern town, Sam Clemens probably witnessed slave sales or at least the announcements of slave auctions. His daily life in town no doubt put him in contact with slaves and exposed him to their treatment in society and the expectations imposed on them as workers. Even within his own household and at the Quarles farm nearby, Clemens was exposed to slavery. The Clemens family may have been struggling to put their accounts in order, but they could afford a slave to assist with the general grocery store and the household chores. The Quarleses, Jane Clemens's sister and brother-in-law and their children, lived close by on a relatively flourishing farm and owned several slaves to assist in the working of the land. Personal records of the Clemenses' and Quarleses' slaves, as true in the case of most slaves, were not kept, so it is impossible to paint a complete picture of their treatment. Treatment, however, is a moot point when one race or group holds another bound in servitude, and society offers no legal recourse for the enslaved.

Although Clemens's portrayal of slavery in Huckleberry Finn is considered by many to be socially and morally responsible when compared to the deeply racist opinions held during the time of the novel by Twain's own contemporaries, Clemens was raised in a Southern, slaveholding household. He may not have owned slaves (although he did have hired servants) once he was out on his own, and his ideas may have been socially progressive, but his perception of race could not help but be influenced by his childhood experiences. In 1853 Clemens traveled to New York City to make his fortune in printing houses. While Clemens disparagingly returned to the South without the riches he thought he would amass, he did gain more knowledge of the printing process and revealed his social and cultural bias in his letters home. Several letters depict his stance: he describes slave sympathizers as "informal abolitionists," claims he should "black his face" for, in these Eastern States n—— are considerably better than white people," and writes of his homesickness for the South and the "good, old-fashioned negro" (qtd. in Hoffman 35). Needless to say, such comments reveal the limits of Clemens's progressive thought. Moreover, his very brief involvement in the Civil War as a soldier in a militia suggests a deep alliance with Southern sympathies and values. In essence, then, Twain wrote a novel portraying the negative impact of slavery despite his rearing and experiences with slavery as a member of the oppressing class.

Understanding the setting and history of the era Twain depicts is key to addressing the novel's plot and its representation of slavery. As Twain explained, the novel is set 40 to 50 years before its publication, or roughly 1835–45. The novel's focus on the issue of freedom and race is appropriate for its Southern setting at this particular time, during the height of slavery and the beginning of the earnest national discussion of slavery that preceded the Civil War. Whether Twain deals with this issue appropriately is an issue that can be and has been argued from more perspectives than can adequately be addressed here.

But to ignore the issue of slavery altogether in any classroom discussion of the novel would be a disservice to the novel's main theme and ultimate purpose. The Public Broadcasting System—(PBS) sponsored Web site Born to Trouble: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn usefully emphasizes the importance of addressing the issues of slavery and racism in the novel. Providing ample support for positive classroom discussions of this sensitive issue, the Web site lists student, teacher, administrator, and parent responses to a recent controversy over the required reading of this novel. The students' responses are especially enlightening as they reveal the lingering importance of this novel's central topic. Racism is still an issue today, and the student comments reveal the importance of studying and openly discussing Twain's novel: "We don't get enough credit for understanding things—we could have read it without all of this"; "This stuff [racism] is all over the news. We can't avoid it. . . . We already learn it outside of school, why not study it in school and get the real facts?"; and "I think the impact of this book is in the discomfort the readers feel. . . . Huck Finn is perfect to read if it's taught correctly." Thus, with the necessary framework, a rewarding discussion of sensitive topics can be achieved.

To focus solely on the issue of slavery would, however, be a disservice to Huckleberry Finn, as the novel is rich in other themes, motifs, and symbols—many of which do connect to the central focus of the novel. Through the exploration of subplots that unfold before the raft rip begins and when Huck and Jim go ashore during their journey down the Mississippi, readers can learn just as much about the principal characters, Huck and Jim, as they do through the moments Huck and Jim spend alone on the raft. The many peripheral characters, who seem insignificant in an exploration of the central theme of the novel, do further the development of Twain's commentary on society and its flaws. Beginning with events that appear to be innocuous is a convenient way to build up to the central discussion of the injustices of slavery and racism. Twain's presentation of Huck's experience before Jim enters the novel is an excellent example: When we first meet Huck, he reluctantly endures the civilizing efforts of the Widow Douglas and Miss Watson and chalks at what amounts to a form of legally enforced custody that leaves Huck less than thrilled with his lot in life. But his wisdom has grown since our last meeting with Huck at the end of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. When Pap returns and seeks custody of Huck in order to control his money, Huck has the foresight to entrust his money to Judge Thatcher. Once Pap kidnaps Huck and the vicious cycle of drinking and violence begins, Huck has the hindsight to acknowledge the benefits of life with the Widow Douglas. His escape highlights his ability to plan and scheme—an ability previously attributed to Tom Sawyer only. Thus, the opening chapters alone highlight the immense growth and development Huck has achieved since we last saw him at the close of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Such an exploration of Huck's struggles with his imposed custody foreshadows the much graver issue of slavery that Jim faces.

When Jim and Huck finally meet on Jackson's Island, the true crisis of the novel becomes apparent. Despite Jim's faithful tending to Huck and Huck's growing sense of responsibility for ensuring Jim's freedom, the true challenge for Huck is that of learning the value of the individual despite what his society has taught him. Huck's decision to assist Jim in his escape from St. Petersburg and Jackson's Island when he learns that the smoke from their fire has drawn attention to their hideout indicates Huck's early decision to question the justice of slavery. His scheme to protect Jim from the band of men seeking runaway slaves by claiming that Jim is ill with smallpox is a testament to Huck's growing abilities. He has now proven twice that he is a deft schemer and his lie brings into focus the concern with truth and lies that run throughout the novel.

As Huck searches for confirmation that his decision to help Jim is the right decision to make, he is forced to tell several fibs. Before they even set off down the river, Huck's skills at deception are questioned. His disguise as a girl is quickly discovered by Judith Loftus when her tests reveal his lack of basic feminine skills. Similarly his attempt to mask his identity at the Grangerfords' causes trouble. While Mrs. Loftus's trouble is merely an inconvenience because Huck must create another lie to save himself and Jim from exposure, the false identity he assumes with the Grangerfords nearly costs him his life in the senseless family feud that rages between them and the Shepherdsons. Perhaps the greatest disguise Huck dons in the novel is the innocent and naive boy who believes the Duke and the Dauphin's con game. By playing along with these darkly comic villains, Huck is able to overthrow their plot to con Mary Jane Wilks of her rightful inheritance. His ability in this instance to see through such an act ultimately complicates even further his inability to inform Tom's plan to free Jim during the final chapters of the novel.

But it is not Huck's ability to deceive others that is most important in the end. He has in fact been deceiving himself to a far greater degree than he has deceived anyone else. Throughout the novel Huck questions the very humanity of the one character who maintains a nobleness and gentility far beyond the capabilities of anyone else in the novel. This is, of course, Jim. Huck simply cannot understand the deeply human bond he shares with Jim. When Huck learns of Jim's deep love for his own family in chapter 23, Huck cannot help question the genuineness of Jim's emotional connection: "I do believe he cared just as much for his people as white folks does for their'n. It don't seem natural, but I reckon it's so." The because he is consistently more concerned with the welfare of others than with his own use and abuse of socially condoned power.

Similarly Twain juxtaposes Huck's morality with the morality of the Duke and the Dauphin during the long con targeting Mary Ann Wilks and her sisters. Spanning chapters 24 through 30, the development of the Wilks deception is second in length only to deceptions Tom and Huck perpetrate on the Phelpses and Jim in the final chapters of the novel. Huck is so ashamed by their false display and attempt to take advantage of a grieving family that he cannot help but act. The three nieces treat Huck with such kindness that he cannot help but "feel at home and know I was amongst friends. I felt so ornery and low down and mean that I says to myself, my mind's made up; I'll hive that money for them or bust." Although he uses several lies and a masterful scheme to secure the money for the Wilks family, these deceptions, like the deceptions he used to save Jim from slavery, are good, because they helped instead of hurt.

Such a distinction between positive and negative lies is dramatically situated at the fore in the final scenes of the novel. Huck may have disappointed the reader with his surprise at Tom Sawyer's willingness to help Jim escape: "I'm bound to say Tom Sawyer fell considerable in my estimation. Only I couldn't believe it. Tom Sawyer a n——stealer!" The arrival of Tom Sawyer in the final chapters is not a surprise as he has been a recurrent figure in the novel. Huck and Jim have often compared their schemes and feats to Tom's exploits. When Huck learns of Tom Sawyer's deception in the final chapters, however, we cannot help but be even more disappointed in the lack of a response or accountability for Tom's deceitful and hurtful plans. Huck's final claim that "[Jim's freedom] was about as well the way it was" is far from satisfying. By saying almost nothing at all, Huck has left it to the reader to make the final decision about a society that condones Tom's escapades. The Phelps do reward Jim for his willingness to sacrifice his own freedom to save Tom's life, but even that rings hollow. It is enough to make one want to "light out for the territory" with Huck.

As do Twain's other social satires, Huck's narrative makes it increasingly difficult for a reader to wish to continue in civilized America. While our 21st-century readings of the novel may find greater fault in the issues of slavery and racism than Twain's contemporaries, there is some satisfaction in knowing that Twain's honest portrayal of the weaker characteristics of humanity and American history have always ranked some, if not all, readers. Perhaps that is all one can really hope for when writing such a biting novel. The fact that this novel can still make us think about and discuss the sensitive issues of slavery, racism, social equality, and the essential qualities of human experience is reason enough to read it despite the plot flaws and questionable language. And perhaps that lasting impact is exactly what makes Huckleberry Finn both an American classic and a perennial source of controversy.

For Discussion or Writing.
1. Compare and contrast the development of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn in their novels, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Who has changed more in the intervening time between the two novels? Why?

2. How accurate is the opening frame narrative when Huck speaks to his readers directly, claiming: "You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer,' but that ain't no matter"?

3. In each of the stops that Huck makes along the river, he encounters new adventures that teach him about the civilization he ultimately rejects. How does each stop contribute to his final decision to "light out for the territory"?

4. Twain provides Huck with several role models: Pap, Jim, Tom, Miss Watson, the Widow Douglas, Judge Thatcher, the Duke and the Dauphin, the Grangerfords, the Wilkses, the Phelpses, and Aunt Polly. From which of the characters does he learn most about civilization and its expectations?

5. Superstitions play a large role in the development of the novel. Jim and Huck share a common interest in the folklore of their area, and both learn new myths from each other. Choose one example of folklore in the novel. Who tells us the superstition? Why is the superstition significant for the plot development? How does the superstition contribute to the overall development of a theme of the novel?

6. Racial inequality is not the only social inequity highlighted in the novel. Several references to gender differences are also made. How are girls Huck's age portrayed? What accounts for the difference between men and women in the towns Huck and Jim visit?

7. Throughout the novel Huck assumes several different identities and encounters characters who are not who they claim to be. Why does Twain use such elaborate schemes? How does such a play with characters' identities contribute to the development of the central theme of the novel?

8. Huck and Jim experience various truths, half-truths, and outright untruths throughout the development of the novel. How does each character react to truth and lies? How do his experiences with truth and lies help him grow and develop during the course of the novel?

9. Much has been written on the idyllic island Huck and Jim share on the raft and the less than ideal world they encounter whenever they visit the riverbank communities. What makes the raft ideal? How does Twain represent Huck and Jim's conduct on the raft as different from their behavior on shore?

10. The Duke and the Dauphin's adaptations of Shakespeare's plays cleverly create literary allusions between the works cited and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Why are such literary allusions included by Twain? What role do they have in his darkly comic farce of society? What role do they play in furthering the discussion of the novel's theme?

11. Twain's novel is set in the Deep South during the years of 1835–45. Research the history of slavery in Missouri and Arkansas during this period. Is Jim's experience an accurate representation of the life slaves endured? What has Twain fictionalized? Is such fictionalization necessary for the advancement of the novel's theme? Does such a necessity make it appropriate?

12. Appended to his foreword to the novel, Twain adds a sentence warning his reader that "persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral in it will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot." Does Twain mean for his audience to take his advice seriously? What is the danger in taking his advice and not finding a motive, moral, or plot?

13. Like many of Twain's works, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was carefully illustrated. How do the illustrations compare with the social commentary of the novel? Are the illustrations of Jim as sympathetic as his character development and his relationship with Huck reveal him to be?

14. Jim is not the only slave in Twain's works. Closely read Aunt Rachel's tale in "True Story." How are Aunt Rachel and Jim alike and different? Does Twain's fictionalized Jim do justice to the history and experiences captured in Aunt Rachel's more-fact-than-fiction autobiography?

15. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has been banned, removed from school and library shelves, censored, uncensored, added to or subtracted from required reading lists for all ages and in many different countries. Twain rather enjoyed the furor his novel caused. After reading the novel, write a letter to Twain and support your position on whether or not the book should be banned.