Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.). Government

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), also called the Soviet Union, was the world's first and most powerful Communist country. It existed from 1922 to 1991. In 1991, the Communist Party lost power, and the Soviet Union broke up into a number of independent states.

From the mid 1940's to the late 1980's, the Soviet Union was one of the two world superpowers. The other was the United States. Intense rivalry between these two countries shaped much of the history of this period.

Before its breakup, the Soviet Union was the largest country in the world in area. It covered more than half of Europe and nearly two-fifths of Asia. The Soviet Union had the third largest population in the world, after China and India.

The rise of the Soviet Union began in the early 1900's. The Bolsheviks (later called Communists) overthrew the Russian government in 1917. The Bolshevik leader V. I. Lenin, above, headed the new government, which established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922

The Soviet Union was officially created in 1922 when Russia joined with three other territories under the name Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These became the first of the country's 15 union republics. The other republics were created and added between 1922 and 1940. The union republics were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia (now Belarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirghiz (now Kyrgyzstan), Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia (now Moldova), Russia, Tadzhikistan (also spelled Tajikistan), Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

Each republic had its own government, but these governments were strictly under the control of the Communist central government. In 1991, the Communists fell from power after a failed attempt by conservative Communist officials to overthrow Soviet President Mikhail S. Gorbachev. Shortly after the attempted take-over, most of the republics declared their independence. All but Georgia and the three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a loose confederation called the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Soviet Union ceased to exist.

At its height, the Soviet Union was an industrial giant, ranking second after the United States in total production. For years, it led all other countries in space exploration. Its armed forces were the largest in the world, and its nuclear arsenal was second only to that of the United States. However, many Soviet families lived in crowded conditions because there was not enough housing.

There were often shortages of meat, shoes, and many other goods. The Communist leaders controlled the country's government, economy, educational system, and communications media. They restricted religious practices and punished those who opposed their policies.

Government. The Communist Party. For almost its entire history, the Soviet Union was dominated by the Communist Party. The Communist Party tolerated no other political party. At the time of the country's breakup, about 16 million people—about 6 per cent of the Soviet population— were members of the Communist Party.

The Communist Party structure was like a pyramid. At the bottom of the pyramid were about 440,000 local groups called primary party organizations. They were set up throughout the U.S.S.R. in such places as factories, farms, government offices, and schools. The primary party organizations, formerly called cells, were responsible for local political and economic life. They rewarded party members for productivity at work or for living according to Communist teachings. They also disciplined members for neglecting their duties.

Just above the primary party organizations were the district party organizations. The district organizations operated under the regional party organizations, which, in turn, reported to the republic party organizations.

At the top of the Communist Party pyramid were the party congresses, which met periodically—usually every five years. Thousands of delegates from party organizations throughout the country attended these congresses. Each congress elected a Central Committee to handle its work. The Central Committee, in turn, elected a Politburo (Political Bureau) and a Secretariat. In actual practice, the Politburo and the Secretariat selected their own members and those of the Central Committee.

The Politburo was the most powerful body in the Soviet Union. It set all important policies. The Secretariat managed the daily work of the Communist Party. The general secretary, or chairman, of the Central Committee headed the Politburo and the Secretariat and was the most powerful person in the U.S.S.R.

A Soviet citizen who wanted to join the Communist Party would enter at the lowest level, applying to join a primary party organization. A candidate had to be at least 18 years old and had to be recommended by three members of the primary party organization. Both the primary and district party organizations had to approve the applicant. The candidate then was required to wait a year before being approved as a full member. The process was designed to permit only those who were most loyal to Communist ideals to join the party.

The fall of the Soviet Union came in 1991 after the Communists lost power. A jubilant crowd in Moscow, above, displayed the banner of the Russian republic in celebration

National government. The main body of the official Soviet central government was a two-house federal parliament called the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. Soviet is a Russian word meaning council. The two houses were the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The members of each house were called deputies. The number of deputies to the Soviet of the Union from each republic depended on population. Each republic— and certain other political units within the Soviet Union—sent a fixed number of deputies to the Soviet of Nationalities. Almost all the members of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. were Communist Party members.

The formal duties of the Supreme Soviet were to write laws and supervise the administration of the government. But for most of the country's history, the parliament met only twice a year for a week or less. It passed without question all proposed laws, which came from the Communist Party's leaders. The chairman of the Supreme Soviet served as head of state, legislative leader, and commander of the armed forces.

The Soviet government included two other important bodies. These were the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and the Council of Ministers. The members of both bodies were officially elected by the Supreme Soviet.

But they were actually chosen by Communist Party leaders. The Presidium handled legislative matters. The Council of Ministers was the highest executive body of the government, with primary responsibility for the economy.

The Committee on State Security, known as the KGB, was an agency of the Council of Ministers. It was the government's political police system and had offices and agents throughout the Soviet Union.

Local government. In addition to the union republics, the Soviet Union included various autonomous republics, autonomous regions, and autonomous areas. Autonomous means self-governing, but the autonomous republics, regions, and areas actually had little control over their own affairs. The political structure of the union republics and the autonomous republics was much like that of the entire country. Each republic was governed by a supreme soviet with a presidium, and a council of ministers. Each one also had its own constitution. The lower levels of local government, from autonomous regions to small districts, had soviets of people's deputies.

Armed forces of the U.S.S.R. were the largest in the world. At the time of its breakup, the Soviet Union had a total of about 4 million people in its army, navy, and air force.