Caria. Detailed history

Caria lay on the southwestern coast of Asia Minor, with Ionia to the north, Lycia to the south, and Phrygia to the east. The Ionian and Dorian populations colonized the region after the end of the Mycenaean Age. Greek inhabitants in the newly established cities joined with the indigenous Carian population. Homer indicated that the Carians were allies of the Trojans, and Herodotus stated that they were from the Minoans.

The Carians spoke an Anatolian language similar to Hittite. Being located on the coastal region of southwestern Asia Minor, the Carians were known for their seafaring abilities and were probably related to the nearby Lydians.

The coastal cities of Caria, which mainly were Greek colonies, ran south from Didyma, just south of Miletus, to Calynda on the coast, with non-Greek sites in the interior. The chief Greek cities and islands in Caria included Didyma, Halicarnassus, Myndos, Cos, Rhodes, Cnidus, Caunus, and Calynda. The Carians were said to have been the original inhabitants of later Greek islands such as Chios, Rhodes, and Delos and were pushed out at the beginning of the Greek migrations.

The Carian and Greek populations appeared to have intermarried, judging by names found in local cities. For example, the father of Thales of Miletus Examyas was etymologically Carian, while his mother Cleobulina was of Greek origin; although many scholars believe he was not of mixed heritage but rather Greek and of noble birth. The Carians were not able to prevent their expulsion from the Ionian and Dorian sites of Asia Minor and were pushed inland along the Meander River and its tributaries. They later fell under the power of the Lydians, led by Croesus.

When the Persians conquered Lydia, the Carians came under their control and were organized as a satrap, with Miletus as its administrative center. When the Ionian revolt broke out in 499, the Carians supported their Greek neighbors fighting the Persian troops. They successfully ambushed a Persian force, annihilating it and killing the Persian general. When Miletus fell, however, further resistance was futile, and the region was once again brought under Persian control. As in other regions, the Persians elevated a local ruler to preside over the inhabitants.

The ruler of Caria, the tyrant Lygdamis whose daughter Artemisia served as admiral in Xerxes’s fleet, ruled over the city of Halicarnassus and the island of Cos. Halicarnassus had two harbors and a strong citadel, making it an ideal protected port for the eastern Aegean trade during the sixth to fourth centuries. When her rule of the city ended, Artemisia passed possession of Halicarnassus to her son, Lygdamis, named after his grandfather. The city was the birthplace of Herodotus, who then moved to Samos to complete his studies and write his Histories.

In the mid-to-late fifth century, the coastal regions were taken over by Athens during its empire, but the interior remained under Persian control. The city of Halicarnassus was part of the Athenian Empire by the end of the fifth century, but with Sparta’s victory at that time, control of the city reverted to the Persians and came under the rule of a new local Carian dynasty, led by Hecatomnus. One of his sons, Mausolus, married his sister, Artemisia, and established a strong control over the region.

Artemisia died without issue and was succeeded by Mausolus’s brother, Hidrieus, who also died childless and left the rule to his wife and sister, Ada. The youngest son of Hecatomnus, Pixodarus, raised a rebellion against his sister Ada, and with the help of his son-in-law, the Persian satrap, Orontobates, he drove her out. After his death, Orontobates seized control of the city. At this point, Alexander the Great arrived and besieged the city, destroying it and restoring Ada, who now ruled over all of Caria in Alexander’s name.

The other chief cities of Caria that descended from the Dorian colonization were Cos and Cnidus. On the mainland, opposite the island of Cos, stood Cnidus, which held its assembly in the temple of Apollo on the Triopian promontory. At first, Cnidus sought to resist the Persians, but the local oracle urged them to abandon their efforts and surrender to the Persians.

After the Battle of Mycale, the Athenians took over the city, making it part of their empire. Some of the chief interior cities that were Hellenized only after Alexander included Myus, Heracleia, Mylasa, and Aphrodisias. The region of Caria provided soldiers to the Persians and was known for its mercenaries, who often fought alongside the Greek mercenaries.