Habitat and Food Losses

Habitat loss is complicated for vultures. While the presence of food is the key issue, habitat preferences are diverse; some vultures prefer mountains, others live in forest and a few in cities, and the majority in savannas and meadows. Any type of terrain may lack the carcasses that are necessary for the future of vultures. Different species of vultures appear to be coping with habitat change in markedly different ways; this ensures that an assessment of their futures is different, in some cases even polarized. Changes that decimate some species (for example reforestation) may even encourage other species, or be neutral for others.

Concerning habitats, the future for New World vultures in North America appears to be reasonably good. Even the California condor has a brightening future, due to the captive breeding programme and the moderate success of the reintroduction programmes. Turkey and Black vultures are expanding northwards, without a real change in the landscapes concerned. Studies quoted in this book have recorded a northward expansion in the Turkey and Black Vulture populations since the 1920s, with a temporary decline during the 1970s when DDT was used. This is partly attributed to the ban in DDT which caused eggshell thinning. The future for this expansion may depend on the temporary or permanent nature of the factors responsible. These were cited as a general warming of the climate, increases in the population of deer and road-killed animals, reduced use of pesticides and lowered human persecution and an increase in the number of landfills. Climate change is cited as possibly the most important, due to the similar northward expansion in other species.

Cathartid adaptation to environmental change is an important factor for expansion. However, this is not the whole story. Increased deer numbers and road kills may not necessarily be permanent, as hunting regulations may change and improved sanitary services may remove roadkills earlier before putrefaction. Road kills, which increase with increased mileages of roads, larger numbers of mammals, more cars and possibly forest growth near roads, may not be a permanent phenomenon. Deer conservation is also an important environmental issue. Efficient environmental management may reduce roadkills by building underpasses under roads, overpasses or more fences near roads. Deer hunting may also be modified, so that hunters do not leave parts of carcasses in the woods, as these may attract coyotes and other facultative scavengers deemed troublesome. Burning, burying or other disposal of remains, deemed more hygienic, may reduce vulture feeding and the presence of facultative scavengers, while enhancing human quality of life.

The same arguments may apply to landfills. Where landfills contain organic matter that may be eaten by vultures, they also attract facultative scavengers and possible agents for human diseases. These landfills may not be permanent, as more hygienic methods will ensure that meat is wrapped in plastic bags to prevent scents, or in large bins which prevent access by scavengers. Landfills may also be periodically covered with layers of soil beyond the capacity of vultures to uncover. All these methods encourage increased hygiene, cleanliness and enhanced human quality of life.

The decreased use of pesticides may be permanent, unless agricultural pests increase markedly. Many researchers advocate the use of 'greener' methods; these include integrated pest management, use of natural pest predators and removal of areas suitable for pest breeding. Whether these methods enable a permanent decline in pesticide use remains to be seen. Such bans may not necessarily be continent-wide, and considering the migratory habits of some New World Vultures, problems may still arise when the birds cross borders.

Laws of varying permanence are an important factor for the decline in the persecution of vultures in Europe and North America. While in the past vultures were frequently shot, such incidents appear to be on the wane. However, with increased vulture numbers, and increased incidents of, for example Black Vultures attacking young livestock in North America, and possible similar occurrences (real or imagined) for vultures in Europe, the question is whether human persecution is abolished for good, or will it return when the vulture populations cause problems beyond the tolerance of the relevant stakeholders.

Several studies quoted in the earlier chapters argue that the decline or local extinction of vultures contributes to the increase of facultative scavengers that create problems for people. However with increased sanitation services, this problem might be ameliorated, at least for large carcasses such as deer, which may be easier to detect and destroy. The idea of increased sanitary services performing the work of scavengers is already important in North America and Europe. These arguments are complicated by the increasing human populations in North America, which require new settlements in previously natural habitats.

Therefore, for vultures in North America, the future for the vultures, appears to be actually be reliant on direct human intervention, either to stop actions in the name of hygiene and quality of life that may impede vulture food access, or actions to create vulture opportunities such as conservation of wildlife. These actions depend on the commitment of those concerned about vulture welfare and the scenarios they are able to negotiate with those who are concerned with sanitation and human quality of life.

In Africa, the future for vultures based on habitat and food losses appears to be more bleak. Even the most adaptive species, the Hooded Vulture has declined in its favored urban foraging grounds. In Africa, habitat issues include desertification, large wild ungulate declines and local extinction outside reserves and increased urbanisation. None of these issues appear to solvable in the near future. Larger vultures are more affected than the Hooded vulture, as they are usually less tolerant of human presence and landcover change.

Human population increase in Africa is forecast by many commentators to continue at current levels at least well into the twenty first century. This will be negative for vultures, despite the increased cattle and small livestock raising, savannaisation as a result of deforestation for agriculture and rural settlements, and urbanisation with abattoirs and food production areas. Vultures will be more dependent on unsanitary human activities, which may eventually be resolved. Also, as already noted, most African vultures are not urban denizens like the small Hooded Vulture.

Other social problems in Africa include hunger, disease and conflict, all of which are combated by increased food supply, increased medical and sanitation services, birth control and conflict resolution. Increased social and economic development, may take decades to resolve, considering the current trends towards substate and tribal conflict (e.g., South Sudan, Mali, Central African Republic, Chad, Somalia, Eithiopia and northern Kenya). These incidents create the need for more effective management, the result of which may eventually reduce the food sources of vultures. Effective conservation wild ungulates and suitable habitat will be balanced against the needs of growing human populations, and similar to the evolving situation in South Africa vulture habitats may be largely within protected areas.

Africa differs from Asia in that there are no clear, over-riding factors for the decline of vultures. Possible factors include deliberate killing for food, local religions, livestock protection; local declines in wild ungulates, rural to urban migration for people, and consequent declines in cattle herding lifestyles and urban spread. The lack of single factor, such as diclofenac use in Asia, hampers government action and impedes the formulation of policies that may ameliorate impacts on vultures. It is much simpler to deal with one problem factor than several. Considering the problems listed above, the possibility of vulture protection in the future is uncertain even with increased awareness of the vulture issues. The commitment of governments and local people is difficult to acquire.

In Asia, the habitats and food supply of vultures still exist, however the catastrophic decline may have caused some problems (increased numbers of facultative scavengers and human diseases). It remains to be seen if alternative methods of carcass disposal could reduce vulture food supply, even with a full recovery of vulture numbers. Human population growth is also high in Asian nations, and sanitation is a prominent issue. The ban on diclofenac shows that policy makers are aware of vulture issues. Another issue that remains to be seen is whether the vulture awareness created by the diclofenac debacle will be temporary or will lead to long-term conservation concerns, which will translate into effective policy on the ground. The evidence shows that people in local contexts are aware of the impact of the vulture declines, and may also be aware that increased sanitation to replace vultures may be more costly in time and money than simply letting the birds do the sanitation work. Participationary methods between local people and the government may therefore yield dividends, but it is now too early for a judgement on the result for long term vulture survival.