Political Realignment in the Post-Sullan Era: 78–70 BC

Caesar's Early Career and the Sullan Legacy. The period immediately following the death of Lucius Cornelius Sulla witnessed Gaius Julius Caesar incrementally integrating himself into Roman public life. Although Caesar had previously incurred the dictator's hostility, his familial connections enabled his return without subjecting him to political proscription. Consequently, Caesar abstained from participating in Marcus Aemilius Lepidus's uprising in 78 BC and refrained from joining the anti-Sullan resistance in Hispania led by Quintus Sertorius. Sertorius, widely regarded as one of Rome's most capable commanders, successfully organized local Iberian tribes to resist senatorial forces for nearly a decade. Unlike Sertorius's followers—who were proscribed exiles legally prohibited from returning to Rome or pursuing the cursus honorum—Caesar faced no constitutional barriers, rendering open rebellion unnecessary.

Constitutional and Social Destabilization under Sulla. Sulla's structural reforms were designed to fortify senatorial authority by restoring the senatorial monopoly over the jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae) and sharply curtailing the legislative powers of the tribunate of the plebs. Furthermore, Sulla enacted statutory limits on provincial governors to prevent future commanders from turning legions against the state. Nevertheless, these statutory prohibitions proved ineffective at maintaining stability, as demonstrated by the ongoing Sertorian War and Lepidus's insurrection. The Italian peninsula remained deeply destabilized by the aftermath of the Social War and civil conflicts, marked by widespread land confiscations intended to settle Sullan veterans, the displacement of Italian agrarian populations, and the devastating raids of Spartacus's slave revolt.

The Rise of Pompey and Military Extra-Constitutionalism. The senatorial oligarchy struggled to manage the successive military crises of the 70s BC, repeatedly resorting to unconstitutional measures. During the Third Servile War, after consular armies suffered multiple defeats, extraordinary command was delegated to Marcus Licinius Crassus, who held only the junior magistracy of praetor. Concurrently, Cnaeus Pompeius (Pompey) achieved rapid political prominence outside conventional constitutional pathways. Following the death of his father, Pompeius Strabo, Pompey mobilized a private army of three legions from his family's estates in Picenum to support Sulla in 83 BC. Raising these forces lacked legal authorization, as Pompey held no magistrate position granting imperium, nor was he a member of the Senate.

Military Victories and the Title of Magnus. Sulla utilized Pompey's military capabilities across campaigns in Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Following these victories, Sulla greeted the young commander with the cognomen Magnus ("the Great") and granted him a triumphal procession, an honor traditionally reserved for senior magistrates possessing valid imperium. Despite these accolades, Pompey's severe measures during these campaigns earned him the sobriquet "the young executioner" (adulescentulus carnifex). Unlike Caesar, who refused Sulla's demand to divorce Cornelia, Pompey complied with the dictator by divorcing his wife to marry Sulla's pregnant stepdaughter, Aetia. Although honored by Sulla, Pompey was not enrolled in the Senate, remaining an equestrian with a loyal private army.

Intervention in domestic uprisings and the Sertorian War. In 78 BC, Pompey initially supported Lepidus's consular candidacy but aligned with the Senate when Lepidus launched an armed insurrection. Operating on behalf of the Senate, Pompey crushed Lepidus's forces and executed Marcus Junius Brutus (father of Caesar's future assassin). Subsequently, Pompey secured a proconsular command (pro consule) in Hispania to reinforce senatorial armies fighting Sertorius. Following Sertorius's assassination by his subordinate Perperna in 72 BC, Pompey swiftly ended the campaign. Returning to Italy in 71 BC, Pompey intercepted a remnant force of fleeing slaves from Spartacus's defeated army, subsequently claiming primary credit for ending the Servile War, which exacerbated political tensions with Crassus.

The Joint Consulship of 70 BC and Constitutional Reforms. In 71 BC, at age thirty-five, Pompey declared his candidacy for the consulship of 70 BC despite having held no elected magistracies and remaining outside the senatorial order. This candidacy directly contravened Sullan statutory regulations, which mandated a minimum age of forty-two and prerequisite service as quaestor and praetor. Crassus also stood for the consulship, meeting all legal qualifications. With both commanders encamped outside Rome with their respective armies awaiting triumphs, the Senate granted formal exemptions, allowing both men to be elected to the consulship for 70 BC.

Legislative Overhaul and Institutional Restructuring. During their joint consulship in 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus systematically dismantled key components of the Sullan constitution:

· Restoration of Tribunician Power: Full legislative, veto, and proposal powers were restored to the tribunes of the plebs, reversing Sullan restrictions.

· Judicial Reform (Lex Aurelia Iudiciaria): Promulgated by Lucius Aurelius Cotta (a relative of Caesar's mother), this law reformed court composition. Juries were henceforth divided equally among three orders: senators, equestrians (equites), and the tribunii aerarii (the property class immediately below the equestrians).

· Censorial Purge and Census Expansion: The revived censorship conducted an extensive review of the senatorial roll, expelling sixty-four senators for moral or political misconduct. The census registered 910,000 adult male citizens, nearly doubling the 463,000 recorded in the previous census of 85 BC.

Civic Display and Political Competition. The political rivalry between Pompey and Crassus persisted throughout their term. Pompey staged a dramatic public appearance during the equestrian review, appearing before the censors escorted by his twelve lictors to announce that he had fulfilled all required military service under his own command. In response, Crassus dedicated a tenth of his personal wealth to Hercules, funding a public feast across ten thousand tables and distributing a three-month grain supply to the citizen body. At the conclusion of their term, both consuls publicly reconciled before retiring to private life without accepting provincial proconsular commands.