Cyrene. Detailed History

Cyrene in North Africa was a colony established from citizens of Thera in seventh century. Due to overpopulation and limited resources, the city and island of Thera consulted the Oracle at Delphi as to where they should send colonists when they were suffering from a famine in the 630s. The island was probably also dealing with internal strife since it was governed by a small group of aristocratic families descended from the earliest Dorian invaders or settlers. Further proof of this discontent may be seen in that some of the colonists were conscripted by lot, and threats were made against those who attempted to evade the duty.

The city had received a message from the Oracle to the effect that the land of Libya was rich and fertile. In addition, the Oracle probably received information that it was an ideal spot because no Greeks had settled there, meaning there was less competition. Furthermore, Tyre had also bypassed the spot in its colonization of North Africa.

Cyrenaica is a large, round promontory extending from the Gulf of Syrtis Major in the west to the Egyptian border in the east, with deserts behind or south of it, effectively making it something of an “island” that looked toward the sea. It was more accessible from Greece than from Egypt or Carthage or the southern deserts inhabited by local nomadic Berber or Libyan tribes. The broad coastal strip had three regions cultivated at different times, allowing for its great productivity in antiquity.

The colonists were led by merchants from Samos, as well as a purple-dye (murex) fisherman, to an island just off the coast of Cyrene named Platea, in the Gulf of Bomba. They were then supplemented with another group of colonists from Thera, under the command of Aristoteles. The colony apparently did not prosper, and the colonists complained to the Oracle of Delphi, which responded that they did not colonize Libya, meaning the landmass, but rather an island, Platea.

The colonists then moved to the mainland to Aziris and established their base for the next six years. It was during this time that they had friendly relations with the local native Libyans; in 632, the tribes suggested that they move to a better position, which was more fertile and had plenty of fresh water. Aristoteles led the group some sixty miles west and came upon Cyrene.

Aristoteles now became king under the name Battus I, a name with Libyan connections. It appears that some of the early inhabitants were Libyan, but they do not appear to have been citizens at this point. The fact that the Libyans were helpful points to at least cooperation, and perhaps even union with the colonists.

Cyrene sits on a plateau about 1,800 feet above sea level and six miles from the sea. The city was on a spur, protected on the west and south by deep ravines and on the northeast by a small ravine. On the southern side of this latter ravine, a fountain flowed, and nearby were temples to Apollo and Artemis and the tomb of Battus I, who was viewed as a hero. The region had rich grain lands and orchards, which allowed the city to grow its own food and even export some of it. The city continued to expand on the plateau and even encompassed the nearby hill and valley. The colonists built a temple to Zeus on the new site, and nearby on the hills were temples to Demeter and Persephone.

Along the road to the harbor at Apollonia, a city established around 600, some twelve miles away, several cemeteries were located, with many tombs cut into the rock. The harbor, now mainly underwater, provided access to the other Greek lands. At this time, the city also sent out other colonists to nearby regions; these journeys were productive, including the establishment of Taucheira and then Euhesperides (Benghazi), on a promontory overlooking the sea. These endeavors were initiated by Battus I and his successor, Arcesilaus I.

The growth of Cyrene also witnessed the concentration of power in the monarchy. Arcesialus I increased the power of the king and chose members of the local aristocracy as his ministers. During this early period, down to about 580, the Greek colonists and Libyan inhabitants appear to have had favorable relations.

The next king, Battus II, sought to have more Greek settlers arrive, and with the backing of the Oracle at Delphi, the homeland sent out new colonists from the Peloponnese and Crete, which were traditional Dorian homelands. Battus II (583-560) and his policies soon angered the local Libyan inhabitants, many of whom had intermarried with the Greek colonists. This was due in part to the Libyans having been driven off their lands so they could be given to the newly arrived Greek colonists.

As a result, a war soon broke out in which the Libyans received some help from the Egyptian pharaoh, but they ultimately submitted to the Greeks. This situation was only exacerbated by the next ruler, Arcesilaus II the Cruel, quarreled with his younger brother Learchus (although some ancient authors say he was an advisor) who then left and established a new colony at Barca near Taucheira. Archesilaus II was then defeated in the desert by the Libyans under Learchus who killed Archesilaus. Learchus proclaimed himself king but was murdered by Archesilaus’s widow Eryxo and her brother Polyarchus who then proclaimed Archesialus and Eryxo’s son Battus III the Lame, king.

Battus III, seeing how dissension had ripped apart the rich, flourishing city, called in an advisor to help solve the political situation. The advisor, Demonax of Mantinea, revised the political and legal system and reduced the monarchy to more of a figurehead, with some religious and territorial rights, and he also increased the power of the people.

He had three tribes, with the first belonging to the original Theran and later Libyan settlers, the second to colonists from the Peloponnese, and the third to colonists from the islands. In this way, he was able to bring the local population into the political fold and solve their disenchantment. There was also an attempt to ensure that the original Theran settlers, now reinforced by the Libyans (who probably had a more positive sentiment toward them than the later colonists), had the largest representation.

Battus III’s son and successor, Arcesilaus III, did not appreciate the loss of power of the king and attempted to reverse these reforms. He failed and thus was forced to flee and marshal a new army, supported by the Samians on the promise of land and money. He won back his kingdom and then took revenge on those who had defied him. He in turn was pushed out again, fleeing to Barca and leaving his mother, Pheretime, to rule as regent.

Arcesilaus III was assassinated, and his widow appealed to the Persian governor of Egypt for help. He responded by coming to take Barca and attack Cyrene. The Persians appointed Arcesilaus’s son, Battus IV, to rule over all of the lands, including Cyrene, Barca, Taucheira, and Euhesperides; he created a small kingdom of Greeks in North Africa. The monarchy of Cyrene lasted until it was replaced by a republican government in the 440s.

Until the troubles suffered by Battus III, Cyrene was known for its riches. In addition to being an excellent location for growing wheat and barley, the region flourished from growing olives and vines. Sheep provided wool, and the raising of horses was also well known. Cyrene was known mainly for its cultivation and export of silphium. Silphium is not a Greek word, which suggests a connection to the local Libyans. Although it is now believed to be extinct, during antiquity it was known for a variety of uses, as a delicacy, a contraceptive, a laxative, and an antiseptic.

The plant grew only on the coast of Cyrenaica, and it resisted any attempts to transplant it. It probably belonged to the genus Ferula and was also known as laserwort or laser. Other species of Ferula were used as spices. It is unknown when silphium became extinct, or even how it occurred. Some theories are overgrazing, overcultivation, or changes in soil chemistry or climate.

Cyrene’s crucial position on the coast of Africa allowed it to become an important trade center for both eastern and western civilizations. Greek ships would often use it as a midway point with Carthage. In addition, it became renowned during the Hellenistic Age for its philosophers, and the mathematician Eratosthenes (276-195) came from Cyrene. The area also introduced a new god, Amun, who was the oracle of Zeus at Siwa. The Greeks called him Zeus Ammon, a play on the word ammos, meaning “sand”—hence the nickname “Sandy Zeus.” The cult spread throughout the ancient Greek world. Cyrene was an important colony that spread Greek culture to the west, especially in Africa.