Colonization in Ancient Greece

Greek colonization existed for nearly a millennium and was undertaken for a variety of reasons. In the early period, colonies were established due to newcomers or invaders into Greece pushing out the indigenous population, who then fled overseas. This occurred with the Dorian invasion at the end of the Bronze Age. During the Archaic period (the seventh century), conditions in Greece reached a point where it was necessary in some regions for the population to be relocated. Political conditions had created peace, which allowed the local areas to expand.

This population increase soon exerted deleterious pressures, the most crucial being the limitation of arable land. The Greek countryside was not conducive to having large fields that could produce the surpluses needed to feed the numerous inhabitants of the Greek city-states, especially those whose populations had increased dramatically, like Athens, Corinth, and Thebes. This lack of productive land led to shortages, which often caused famines.

Population expansion created its own problems due to the continual increase in family size. The practice of dividing land among sons often led many families to have only one; but given the high rates of infant mortality at the time, families were not content to risk their future on one child. In addition, having girls was often discouraged since the family had to pay a dowry at their marriages.

On the other hand, girls could be more available for working on the family farm and a useful source of labor until they became of age for marriage. Those families that had more girls than they wanted often left infants on the mountainside to be exposed to the elements. This was not seen as murder since the gods would decide if the child died or lived; often, other families would take the infant as a slave. An additional reason for colonization was the opening of new avenues for trading and profit.

As in all eras, there were adventurers, men who did not fit into the settled life of their city and yearned to make their own mark on society. One such individual was Archilochos of Paros, who left behind some fragments of poetry. He was from the upper class and helped in Paros’ colonization of Thasos, in the northern Aegean near Thrace, a land viewed as flowing with gold treasures that were ripe for the taking.

He arrived in the region and took part in several campaigns, even losing his shield and joking about it, but he discovered that the Thracians were not so easily cowed. These adventurers also looked to the east to Anatolia for riches, and several colonies were established in hopes of controlling this wealth.

There were also individuals who saw no hope in their own cities and were willing to accept a new political life in the hope of rising in stature. These men could be the losers in the struggles between aristocratic families after replacing the earlier kings. The ruling party often became more selective and narrow, excluding other families and stoking discontent.

These now-reduced social families often looked outward to reestablish their political fortunes. Accompanying them were many of the lower classes, who were aligned with them. With stories constantly given out that these far-off lands could support all the colonists, and with nothing to hold them in their home cities, they eagerly and willingly left, and the ruling families were only too glad to get rid of these malcontents .

The first era of colonization occurred at the end of the Bronze Age, when colonists left the Greek mainland to Asia Minor. In the north of Asia Minor, the Aeolis region was colonized by inhabitants from Boeotia and Thessaly, particularly on the island of Lesbos. From there, colonists spread north to the Hellespont into the region south of the River Hermus. In the south, there were eleven cities, led by Cyme. Five main cities sprang up in on Lesbos—Mytilene, Methymna, Eresus, Antissa, and Pyrrha—all of which became prosperous.

South of Aeolis lay Ionia, which was colonized by inhabitants leaving central Greece, including but not exclusively Athens and its surrounding area, and by the late eighth century, twelve city-sates were created. These were the islands of Chios and Samos and on the mainland Phocaea, Clazomenae, Erythrae, Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Epesus, Priene, Myus, and Miletus (listed from north to south).

They would unite in a religious and later political league. Finally, the Dorians from the Peloponnese settled the region in the south, Doris, which included Cos, Cnidus, and the island of Rhodes. When this phase was complete after about three centuries, most of Asia Minor on the coast south of the Hellespont was populated with Greek cities, leaving little room for more colonization.

The Greeks began their next phase of colonization in the late eighth and seventh centuries, heading west. Notably, they did not go north to Macedon or Thrace or east to the Black Sea; these areas would be colonized later even though they had many natural resources. It is possible that they were avoided because there were numerous locals capable of defending their lands; it is also possible that since the wind and wave patterns of the Aegean blow westward, many of the early sailors were driven in that direction. Sicily became one of the most popular centers for colonization. The tradition arose that it was colonized by Euboeans, mainly from Chalchiis and Eretria, and by the Dorians.

It is clear that although these two regions had the most colonists, colonies were also established at Ischia and Cumae on the Italian mainland. On Sicily, Naxos was said to have been settled first in 757, while Corinth sent colonists to Syracuse around 735. These dates put Greek colonies in the west contemporary with the Phoenicians, not later as some in antiquity asserted. The tiny state of Megara, a competitor to Corinth, was involved early in westward colonization done to counter the influence of Corinth. Megara may have been helped by citizens from Argos and Aegina, who did not want to see Corinth dominate, but Argos and Aegina did not send out colonies of their own. The Megarans established Hyblaea in 750 in Sicily.

The Chalkidians settled Rhegion, situated on the boot of Italy, after establishing Zankle across the straits in Sicily. Controlling these two sites allowed them to limit passage through the western straits to travelers toward whom they were well disposed. Although Sparta did establish a colony at Taras (modern Taranto), it mostly did not colonize; instead, it decided to solve its population expansion at home by conquering the Peloponnese. More Greek colonies were established by different Greek city-states at Lokroi, Kroton, and Sybaris.

The colonies prospered due to the fertility of their soil and their ability to grow surplus wheat, as well as raising cattle and taking timber. The colonies became economic centers, and throughout the region of southern Italy and Sicily, the Greek world expanded. These cities were not just extensions of Greece, nor were they only minor components. It is clear that Syracuse and Akragas were even larger and wealthier than most Greek mainland cities. The Greek cities of southern Italy became known as Magna Graecia. Other Greek cities from Asia Minor, once colonies of the Greek mainland, as well as colonies from Sicily, sent out their own colonies.

The Greeks also established colonies on the coast of France at Massilia (Marseilles), founded by the Phokaia in Ionia Asia Minor about 600. Massilia then established its own colonies at Antipolis (Antibes) and Nikaia (Nice) and other towns of the region. The Gallic colonies then sent colonies to Spain such as at Emporion (Ampurias), whose name means “trading center.”

The cities of Asia Minor also sent colonies to Sardinia and Corsica when the Persians began to dominate western Anatolia. All of these colonies were established in areas whose climates were similar to that of Greece, which made it easier for the residents to adapt. The Greeks did not establish many colonies on the North African coast. Thera sent a colony to Cyrene, which then established its own colonies at Barke and Euhesperides, but that was all. Some colonies in North Africa failed, and when the people there attempted to return home, they were prevented and advised to settle elsewhere.

In the later phase of colonization, the Greeks turned their attention closer to home—namely, the northern Aegean. In particular, Chalchis established numerous colonies in Thrace on the three-pronged peninsula later known as the Chalkidike. The most famous colony here was Potidaia from Corinth. On the whole, the Greeks considered this region to be less hospitable than Sicily. Later, the Greeks went to the Hellespont, especially led by Megara, which founded a colony Chalcedon in 684 on the coast of Asia Minor but did not exploit at this time the more strategic site of Byzantium across the Bosporus. Later in 667, Megara established a colony at Byzantium that became more prosperous and strategic. The Greek cities of Asia Minor, especially Miletos, made colonies in the Black Sea region.

Part of the reason why the Black Sea was not colonized earlier was that the winds blowing from the east pushed against the Greeks trying to sail across the sea. In addition, the tribes around the Black Sea destroyed some of the early establishments, which required the Greeks to reestablish them in the seventh century. Eventually, the Black Sea was colonized, though, and these colonies were able to exploit the rich wheat-lands of southern Ukraine. This region became a rich trading partner, but it was always viewed as being too far from the Greek homeland and more dangerous than the west.

The process for establishing a colony varied, but it is clear that certain rules and policies existed. First, a colony was not considered just an extension of the founding or mother city. This meant that the colony did not owe any allegiance to its founder. In fact, the two were often enemies, such as Corcyra and its mother city of Corinth. Some daughter cities, such as Potideia, retained some connection to Corinth, but those were an exception. Second, each colony had its own constitution. While colonies may have based their constitution on that of their mother cities, they were not obligated to do so.

Third, once the colonists left their mother cities, they gave up all rights of citizenship and legal status, which meant that they could never return to their homeland, nor did they have any legal rights. Finally, the site of the colony had to be determined. Here, the Oracle at Delphi was crucial. Cities would ask the Oracle if they should establish a colony, and the Oracle would research its archives established by centuries of contacts and information about suitable places. The Oracle acted as a library for information about regions and their capabilities and would give advice as to where colonists should go. This gave the oracle great power since they could advise cities where to established colonies, most of which flourished.

The new city-state often replicated its mother city in terms of politics (although if founded because of dissent, not always), social organization (i.e., classes or tribes), and even city planning. While the mother city may have been an oligarchy, the daughter city, especially if founded due to political dissent, might be democratic. The new city would have a gymnasium, theater, and agora. Since they were independent from their mother cities, most colonies had their own coinage. Although similar in design, occasionally governments, and religious, colonies were distinct from their mother cities.

The colonization movement allowed mother cities to rid themselves of their surplus population and potential malcontents. It also resulted in Greek civilization and culture being transported throughout the Mediterranean.