Ancient Syracuse: Carthage Conflicts, Athenian Defeat, and Tyrannical Rule

The large island of Sicily became a magnet for Greek overseas expansion. Known since Mycenaean times for trading sites established and recounted in Homer’s Odyssey, Sicily was explored and exploited by the Corinthians as they began to establish colonies in the eighth century. The largest island in the Mediterranean, Sicily measures about 170 miles on its northern and southern coasts and its eastern coast about 110 miles and is separated from the mainland by the narrow Straits of Messenia to the east. Due to its triangular shape, it was originally known as Thrinacia, from the Greek word for trident. The inhabitants in the east were native Sicels, who gave the island its name.

Syracuse was the second colony established on the island (after Naxos in 733), on a former Mycenaean trading post, which had been inhabited continuously since the Paleolithic period. The colonists were from Tenea, near Corinth, and were led by Archias, who had fled after committing murder (attempted to kidnap the son of Melissus, Actaeon, whom he fell in love with, but during the attempt, Actaeon was killed and his father, who could not get justice, killed himself bringing a famine on Corinth forcing Archias to go into exile).

The colonization of Syracuse took place the same year that Corcyra was colonized by the Corinthians, and it is clear that Corinth was making a play to expand its power in the west and link its trading system with a series of colonies. Unlike other mother cities, Corinth attempted to control its daughters, although with Corcyra this failed, and relations were hostile between them as a result. At Syracuse, the relations, although not endearing, were not hostile. In the early period after its foundation in 733 until probably 600, Syracuse depended on Corinth for its supplies and goods, as shown by finds of only Corinthian pottery.

The original Corinthian settlement was on the island of Ortygia, just off the coast of Syracuse. The island’s location near the coast provided the surrounding region, the future Syracuse, with two fine harbors. The larger of them, the Great Harbor, gave the region the best anchorage. Ortygia was supplied with fresh water from a spring on the island. By the end of the eighth century, the population had increased such that it was necessary to begin colonizing the mainland. This move necessitated the expulsion of the local Sicels, who were driven into the interior mountains.

On the mainland, the major districts of Syracuse included Achradina, near the harbor and the commercial center; Neapolis to the northwest, a residential center; the heights of Epipolae, which offered defensive capabilities; and Tyche to the northeast, also a residential region. Two miles southwest of the Achradina was Olympieum, dedicated to Zeus, which was beyond the marshes on a broad plain with plenty of water supplied from the River Anapus, which provided grain for the city. This region provided wealth for the landowners (gamoroi), who composed the 600-strong aristocratic assembly.

The rise of Syracuse allowed the wealthy to push farther into the interior, seizing Sicel land; making some helots into kyllyrioi, who paid taxes or tribute; and establishing colonies of their own, especially in the interior on strategic mountaintops for defensive purposes. The Sicels, although more numerous, were now confined to the interior and were often seized and sold as slaves, enriching Syracuse even more. Syracuse maintained control over many of its own colonies, especially the nearby ones (an unusual occurrence in the Greek world). The city soon dominated the southeastern part of the island. Syracuse abandoned the use of Corinthian coinage and began to mint its own silver coins. By the end of the sixth century, the city of Syracuse was perhaps the greatest in the Greek world.

In the early fifth century, however, the nearby Gela, under the tyrant Hippocrates, successfully defeated Syracuse at the Battle of the River Helorus, and although Corinth and Corcyra prevented it from seizing Syracuse, Gela controlled the region. Due to this disaster, the aristocratic government was overthrown and a democracy was established. Part of Syracuse’s problem was that the original aristocrats who held the choice lands grew in wealth and status, while the later arrivals and the poor had to earn their living on the poor hillsides. In addition to the multiethnic composition of the city, with various Greek populations and local Sicels, the city suffered from class distinctions and struggles. This would lead to countless civil conflicts, which hampered the city during the next few centuries; it never became great again, even with its improved position and wealth.

In 485, the ruler of Gela, Gelo, took over the city and transplanted many of the inhabitants of Gela and the surrounding cities there, creating a more multiethnic population and building the residential quarters of Tyche and Neapolis. Gelo also began a series of public works, which not only provided employment but enriched the cultural heritage of the city. The most famous construction was the theater. The great playwright from Athens, Aeschylus, wrote many of his tragedies in Syracuse.

The continual growth of power by Gelo and Syracuse brought Carthage, which controlled parts of western Sicily, into conflict with them. The Carthaginian forces were defeated at the Battle of Himera by Gelo in 480, supposedly on the same day as the Battle of Salamis. The story in Herodotus has Carthage attacking Syracuse at the time of Xerxes’s invasion of Greece as a concerted plan to take over the entire Greek world. This idea was probably a later explanation of how the western Greeks successfully defeated the eastern powers (Carthage had been founded by Phoenicia). Gelo strengthened the city walls, and the population continued to prosper.

In 478, Gelo died, and power passed to Hiero, his brother, who ruled for ten years. Hiero increased Syracusan power and defeated the Etruscans and Carthaginians at the Battle of Cumae in 474. This prevented the Etruscans from taking control of the Greek cities in Campania, around the Bay of Naples. Hiero died in 467 and was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus, and the tyranny in Syracuse ended shortly thereafter.

In 466, after Hiero’s brother, Thrasybulus, was overthrown, Syracuse became democratic again. The city continued to grow, and during the late fifth century, it became part of Athens’s desired plan to seize both the city and island of Syracuse. This led to the Athenian Sicilian Expedition in 415-413, where the Athenians arrived with over 130 triremes and nearly 6,000 soldiers. The Athenians attacked Syracuse and although defeating the Syracusan navy they could not take the city. The Spartans sent a general, Gylippus, who organized the Syracusans and defeated the Athenian ground forces, preventing another attempt by Athens to take Syracuse.

An Athenian relief force with 75 ships and 5,000 soldiers arrived, but it was ineffective, especially since many of the Athenians camping near the marshes had become ill. The Athenians now planned to leave when more reinforcements arrived from Sparta. Before they could leave, however, a lunar eclipse occurred on August 28, 413, which frightened the Athenians. They waited another month to leave. Syracuse took advantage of the chaos and attacked the Athenian fleet in the Great Harbor, scoring a victory.

With the Athenians trapped inside the harbor, their general, Nicias, ordered the camp abandoned on September 13, with a plan to flee overland. The Syracusans attacked them and during the night, the soldiers became separated and disorganized. The Athenians were completely defeated, and most were killed. With this defeat, Nicias surrendered his force of 7,000 men, most of whom were sent to the mines, where they died. A few escaped and brought home news of the disaster to Athens.

After this war, Syracuse found itself fighting with Carthage again, and it prevailed. During this time, an elected military commander, Dionysius, seized power in 406 and became tyrant. Dionysius the Elder increased his power by using mercenaries. From 397 to 392, he fought a war with Carthage but failed to drive it out of Sicily. He built a series of strong walls around Syracuse and enlarged its power. He died in 367 and was succeeded by his son, Dionysius the Younger.

The young tyrant was advised by his uncle, Dion, who attempted to control the young man but failed and was sent into exile. Dion returned in 357 and defeated Dionysius the Younger who fled. Dion ruled till 354 when he assassinated on orders of Dionysius the Younger. Dionysius returned in 346 to Syracuse and during the political chaos reestablished himself until he ultimately was overthrown by Timoleon of Corinth in 344 and exiled to Corinth, where he died the next year. Timoleon attempted to stabilize the situation and defeated the Carthaginians in 339, but with his death, a series of internal struggles in Syracuse were waged for the next generation, leading the tyrant Agathocles to seize power in 317.

The fortunes of Syracuse were constantly hindered by its civil strife. The internecine wars between the aristocrats and the general population were never resolved, leading to the rise of tyrants, who in turn could never create a stable government. With all its seesawing power struggles, the city never regained the power and glory it had enjoyed during the sixth century.