Socratic Method: Socrates’ Ethics, Trial, and Philosophical Legacy

The philosophical school known as the Socratic Method, where one person continuously asks questions, forcing the other participant to make a binary choice, takes its name from the fifth-century Athenian thinker Socrates. In this philosophy, one attempts to discover universal truths by reducing them to a simple statement. The method was captured in a series of dialogues in which Socrates would approach someone and ask for a definition of a large idea.

He would then evaluate the definition and often show how incomplete, contradictory, or absurd it was. He would then continue with questions designed to continually sharpen the views or answers. But Socrates never gave a final answer, though he would often explore the inaccuracies of the other argument. He liked order and classified things to the lowest level, foreshadowing Aristotle’s classification of ideas.

Of course, his opponents pointed out that Socrates never created ideas; rather, all he did was tear them down. Another objection was that he never gave an answer to a question, but rather just argued. When opponents pointed out what Socrates was doing, he would try to turn it around by asking even more questions, which often made the original question or point even more confusing. To the public, he was similar to the Sophists, since like them, he engaged in dodges and tricks or changed the subject, or was just annoying.

Although no writings from Socrates himself survive, the two main authors who knew him, Plato and Xenophon, presented different portraits. Plato showed an evolution of the philosopher from a timid youth in Parmenides to a contrary pupil in Protagoras to a wise sage in Phaedo. This evolution was supported by other authors of the age, particularly Aristotle, who stated that this portrayal of Socrates is accurate. Xenophon, on the other hand, presented an imaginary picture that Aristotle said portrayed the philosophical positions of Xenophon, not Socrates. The picture drawn by Plato is probably closer to reality, but Xenophon’s view may have been more popular among many Athenians. Other writers were less kind, describing Socrates as uneducated and debauched, while still others, like the contemporary playwright Aristophanes, depicted him as a gadfly.

Socrates differed from the Sophists in important areas. He objected to rhetoric; he attempted to strengthen morality; he only taught people how to examine ideas; and he did not charge for his instruction. His students admired and loved him. His followers seem to have established a school, and he taught anyone who listened. His students came from a variety of backgrounds, and they became the founders of many of the great philosophical schools: Platonism, Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, and skepticism. All these movements traced their foundations to the great teacher.

His pupil Antisthenes established the Cynic school, a philosophy to live a life in virtue rejecting wealth, power and fame, while Aristippus created the forerunner of Epicureanism, a philosophy of pleasure; Eucleides invented the idea of skepticism, which states that there was no real knowledge. Finally, there was Plato, who established his school, which became the most famous.

Other pupils of Socrates included Phaedo, Xenophon, Alcibiades, and Critias the Oligarch. His enemies were often those who objected to the views of his pupils, such as Critias, who was antidemocratic and a member of the Thirty Tyrants set up after the Peloponnesian War who executed prisoners and confiscated their wealth, and whose association with Socrates would be used to implicate the philosopher. Anytus the son of Anthemion argued that Socrates preached not to respect either the parents or the gods, and that he was critical of democracy as well. He would be a major opponent.

Socrates did not have a dogma as presented by other philosophers. His view on religion is hard to discern, since he never spoke an impious word and he participated in the religious ceremonies of Athens. He said that he followed his own daimonion (inner force) from heaven. He argued to obey the oracle at Delphi, saying that “we know nothing of the gods.” To Socrates, philosophy was about politics and ethics. He believed that the Sophists weakened the supernatural basis of morals. To him, knowledge was the highest form of excellence. According to Xenophon, Socrates believed that aristocracy was the best form of government, while democracy was nonsense. If Xenophon was correct, then the charges against Socrates might have been valid.

Socrates, however, saw the advantages of democracy and appreciated its liberties. He was viewed with irritation by some, but the notions he had about religion in which he rejected tradition led to attacks. When the oligarchic revolution took place at the end of the Peloponnesian War, many of his pupils, such as Critias, created a reign terror with executions and confiscations even though Socrates did not support their actions. When democracy was restored, democrats such as Anytus and Meletus viewed Socrates as the intellectual founder of the oligarchy and moved to remove him for not believing in the gods of Athens and corrupting the youth (i.e., the oligarchs).

His ideas were passed to his pupil Plato, who promoted Socrates’s ideas in his Dialogues. These passages allowed Socrates and his ideas to become the primary forum of philosophy and led to the learning method named for him.