Risk Factors for Alcohol-Related Aggression

Dispositional/Trait Aggression. Decades of research examining laboratory- based aggression measures to assess the effects of alcohol use on aggression have established that alcohol consumption increases the likelihood of reacting aggressively when individuals are faced with provocation. A key component that has been shown to interact with aggressive response and alcohol consumption is dispositional aggression. Alcohol increases aggressive responses in individuals with a high disposition for aggression; however, alcohol does not have the same influence on those individuals with a low disposition for aggression.

Alcohol-Related Outcome Expectancies. Within the framework of social learning theory, violence and aggression, similar to many other behaviors, are learned by observation and imitation of others. Developmentally, behaviors are learned through observing the positive (reinforced) and negative (punished) consequences of behaviors. An individual’s violent behavior is developed from previous observational and experiential learning that aggression is rewarding. As such, the positive expectancies associated with aggression increase the likelihood of engaging in such behavior; consequently, the co-occurrence of alcohol consumption and aggression influence the likelihood of violence in a given scenario. That is, through experience and observation, individuals learn the association between drinking and becoming violent (i.e., “When I/others drink at the club, I/others always get in a fight.”). This expectation can be based on previous observations or from personal experiences of getting into bar fights.

Research shows that this cognitive representation of previous experiences shapes the outcome of future situations. Those who believe that alcohol makes them violent or those who expect violence in a specific type of context (e.g., drinking at a pub or bar) are more likely to become violent than those who believe otherwise. Trait aggression has been reported to influence this relationship further, in that the positive outcomes for aggression are more potent for those who have high trait aggression than for those who have low trait aggression. Alcohol-related outcome expectancies are not the only persuasive factor manifesting the positive relationship between aggression and alcohol; however, challenging these negative outcomes may assist in decreasing alcohol-related violence.

Social Problem Solving, Cognitive Processing, and Impulsivity. The literature on alcohol use, aggression, and the interrelationship of these variables with other influential factors, such as impulsivity and problem solving, is complicated, and a comprehensive review is out of the scope of this entry. However, a few points are worth addressing, specifically with respect to the interplay among aggression, alcohol use, and cognitive processing. For instance, physiologically these variables interact under a few conditions. The first condition is when a low amount of alcohol is consumed, this may reduce inhibitory factors and thus facilitate aggression. At low doses, alcohol alters the anxiety-threat system by decreasing anxiety and inhibition. In a situation in which individuals are threatened or provoked, they are disinhibited (i.e., more impulsive) and may therefore be more likely to respond with an aggressive act than they would had they not consumed alcohol.

The second condition occurs under a large amount of alcohol consumption; this may cause a sedative or analgesic effect that alters the cognitive-control system. Under this similar condition, high levels of alcohol consumption also impair one’s ability to make judgments, which may also lead to aggression. Social problem solving and cognitive functioning are disrupted, and individuals may have alcohol myopia, which can be best described as having tunnel vision in relation to the perceived provocation; individuals only attend to the most salient and proximal elements of a social situation, such as the provocation, and problem solving and abstract reasoning are disrupted. Individuals fail to implement problem-solving skills, such as identifying the consequences of their action (e.g., potential conviction for a violent assault) or alternative and nonviolent responses to the social interaction. Therefore, alcohol consumption by individuals with informationprocessing deficits is purported to possibly increase the risk for aggression.

In a 1997 review, Stephen Chermack and Peter Giancola noted the association between information-processing deficits and aggression as well as the ability of alcohol to disrupt executive cognitive functioning and problem solving and to limit abstract reasoning. Therefore, alcohol consumption by individuals with information-processing deficits may increase the risk for aggression. As a result, alcohol abuse has been suggested to be a potential mediating variable in the association between impulsivity and aggression.

With the frequency of impulsivity and violent behavior considered, acknowledging the effect of an impulsive personality in the relationship between alcohol use and aggression is important. In general, alcohol abuse is a complex behavior that is not innately impulsive. However, if impulsivity is related in some way to alcohol use, one would expect individuals who exhibit impulsive behavior to have high rates of substance use, and research has shown this to be the case in various offender, nonoffender, and clinical samples.

Other findings provide further support for this relationship. In a longitudinal study of delinquents and violent offenders, individuals who scored high on impulsivity and hyperactivity measures were found to be 3 times more likely to develop an alcohol problem by age of 25. Furthermore, individuals high on impulsivity and alcohol problems were 10 times more likely to be arrested for a violent offense than those individuals who did not exhibit impulsivity or alcohol problems. Evidently, results indicated that delinquents who are impulsive and drink heavily are most likely to be violent.

The aforementioned research suggests the positive relationship among alcohol use, social problem-solving deficits, impulsivity, and aggression. Given that these are key areas of influence, they are worthy starting points for consideration in developing treatments for alcohol-related violence in offenders.

Interventions. The intended treatment targets of cognitive behavioral treatment programs for violent offenders typically aim to decrease antisocial attitudes and cognitions related to violence. Often, these are contextualized and situated within an anger management framework. Given that substance use is an important criminogenic need, naturally, the role of substance use should be addressed within the context of a violent offender treatment program; however, it is seldom the focus despite its strong prevalence in violent offenses. Notably, specific interventions designed to control and treat alcohol-related violence are limited.

Mary McMurran, a key researcher and clinician in the treatment of alcohol-related violence in the United Kingdom, is an advocate of advancing the development and implementation of programs addressing this specific need area. McMurran has devised a comprehensive therapeutic model of alcohol-related aggression, which is called the Control of Violence for Angry Impulsive Drinkers model. This framework includes the key cognitive behavioral treatment-based elements of anger management and problem solving; however, it also aims to address the treatment targets of greatest relevance to alcohol-related violence. A few of these targets include modifying drinking habits, weakening beliefs about the effects of alcohol, managing aspects related to cognitive and behavioral impulsivity, and enhancing problem-solving skills. Given that the program offerings in this domain are limited, assessing the outcomes related to programs, such as the Control of Violence for Angry Impulsive Drinkers, merits further attention.

The relationship between alcohol and aggression is complex, and researchers have been limited in their capacity to demonstrate a direct causal relationship between these factors. However, consistent evidence has illustrated a connection, with the recognition that the role of indirect causes, such as individuals’ differences and situational factors, is important. In addition, associations among high trait aggression, impul- sivity, deficits in social problem solving, and alcohol-related outcomes expectancies have been shown. Finally, although correctional programs specifically addressing the specific antecedents of alcohol-related violence are limited, considerable research has been conducted to help unravel the complex relationship involved and enrich knowledge and understanding of alcohol-related violence.

Dena M. Derkzen and Ralph C. Serin
See also Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Social Learning Theory; Genetic and Environmental Influences on Violence and Aggression; Neurobiological Bases of Aggression; Substance Abuse and Crime, Linkages Between; Theoretical Models of Violence and Aggression

Further Readings: Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51.

Bushman, B. J., & Cooper, H. M. (1990). Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research review. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 341-354.

Chermack, S. T., & Giancola, P. R. (1997). The relation between alcohol and aggression: An integrated biopsychosocial conceptualization. Clinical Psychology Review, 17(6), 621-649. doi:org/10.1016/ s0272-7358(97)00038-x

Giancola, P. R. (2000). Executive functioning: A conceptual framework for alcohol-related aggression. Experimental Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 576-597.

Giancola, P. R., Josephs, R. A., Parrott, D. J., & Duke, A. A. (2010). Alcohol myopia revisited: Clarifying aggression and other acts of disinhibition through a distorted lens. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 265-278. doi:10.1177/1745691610369467

Hollin, C. R., & Bloxsom, C. A. J. (2007). Treatments for angry aggression. In T. A. Gannon, T. Ward, A. R. Beech, & D. Fisher (Eds.), Aggressive offenders’ cognition (pp. 215-229). doi:org/10.1002/97804707 46295.ch11

McMurran, M. (2002). Alcohol, aggression and violence. In J. McGuire (Ed.), Offender rehabilitation and treatment (pp. 221-241). Oxford, UK: John Wiley.

McMurran, M. (Ed.). (2012). Alcohol-related violence: Prevention and treatment. Oxford, UK: John Wiley.