Caesar’s Triumphs of 46 BC: Politics, Pageantry, and the Consolidation of Dictatorial Power

Introduction and Historical Epigraphs. The nature of power shifts in the wake of internal conflict is often shaped by political necessity and ideological messaging. As Cicero observed in December 48 BC, "It is always the same at the end of civil wars, and it is not just the wishes of the victor which are carried through, for he also needs to humour those who have helped him to win." Following his initial campaigns, Julius Caesar projected an image of unmatched clemency. The historian Velleius Paterculus noted in the early first century AD: "As victor Caesar returned to the city and, in a way that almost exceeded human belief, pardoned all those who had carried arms against him."

The Return to Rome and Senate Honors. Caesar reached Rome near the end of July 46 BC. Prior to his arrival, the Senate had already voted him a staggering total of forty days of public thanksgiving for his latest military success. To maintain political tact, this victory was officially declared to be over King Juba of Numidia rather than his Roman political adversaries. This period of thanksgiving was double the duration awarded even for his decisive conquest over Vercingetorix in Gaul. Fourteen years earlier, Caesar had surrendered his right to celebrate a triumph in order to pursue his candidacy for the consulship; now, after weeks of intense preparations, he celebrated four distinct triumphs. These processions commemorated his campaigns in Gaul, Egypt and the Nile, Asia, and against King Juba in Africa. Over his career, Pompey the Great had celebrated three triumphs; Caesar’s four celebrations similarly highlighted victories across three continents—Europe, Africa, and Asia.

The Quadruple Triumphal Processions. The celebrations commenced on September 21, 46 BC. Rather than being held on consecutive days, the events were staggered across two weeks, concluding on October 2. The scale of these triumphs was exceptionally lavish, featuring elaborate parades of prominent prisoners. Among the captives were the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix, the infant son of King Juba, and Arsinoe IV, the sister of Cleopatra. Arsinoe and the young Numidian prince aroused public sympathy among the Roman spectators, leading Caesar to spare their lives. In contrast, Vercingetorix was executed via traditional ritual strangulation at the conclusion of the Gallic triumph.

Symbolic Innovations and Civic Honors. The events marked a departure from traditional Republican customs through the granting of unique honors to Caesar. Most notably, he was granted the right to be preceded by seventy-two lictors. Under standard Roman constitutional practice, a consul was attended by twelve lictors, while a dictator was accompanied by twenty-four. The presence of seventy-two lictors represented a threefold increase over a standard dictatorial retinue, signifying Caesar's triple appointment to the dictatorship. Furthermore, drawing on archaic Roman precedent, Caesar rode in a ceremonial chariot drawn by a team of four white horses.

Ritual Precaution and Public Display. According to accounts by Suetonius and Cassius Dio, during the opening Gallic triumph, the axle of Caesar's chariot snapped, forcing him to complete the procession in a replacement vehicle. To avert any ill omen associated with the accident, Caesar completed the final leg of the ceremony by ascending the steps of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill on his knees. The scholar Pliny the Elder recorded that Caesar habitually recited a defensive incantation before entering a chariot due to a previous transport accident, though it proved insufficient on this occasion.

Visual Propaganda and Public Reaction. Each triumphal procession included specialized wagons transporting captured spoils, precious metals, and military equipment. Displays featured placards bearing iconic campaign slogans—most famously Veni, Vidi, Vici ("I came, I saw, I conquered")—alongside detailed lists of military achievements. Historical calculations derived from Pliny estimate total enemy casualties across Caesar's military career at approximately 1,192,000, a figure likely compiled from the public declarations displayed during these celebrations. The competitive nature of the Roman aristocracy placed high emphasis on quantifying military accomplishments.

Representations of the Civil War. In accordance with Roman tradition, large paintings depicting key battle scenes and regional landscapes were carried through the streets. Although the official narrative focused on defeating foreign enemies rather than domestic rivals—omitting explicit depictions of Pompey or the Battle of Pharsalus—the floats featured representations of Optimate deaths. Spectators viewed detailed paintings of Metellus Scipio committing suicide by stabbing himself and Cato the Younger tearing open his self-inflicted wounds at Utica. While these visual reminders of civil strife provoked murmurs from the crowd, contemporary historical sources do not indicate widespread public hostility toward Caesar. Instead, the stark depictions of the war's human toll served to emphasize the necessity of political stability under the new regime.

Military Licentiousness and Camp Songs. Marching legionaries, wearing their military decorations and full equipment, exercised their traditional right to sing satirical verses (carmina triumphalia) during the procession. Republican custom granted troops immunity from standard military discipline on the day of a triumph, permitting them to poke fun at their commander. The soldiers sang about Caesar's personal relationships in Gaul, humorously accusing him of mismanaging state funds, and warned citizens to safeguard their wives from the "bald adulterer." Other verses referenced old rumors regarding his early diplomacy in Bithynia:

Caesar subdued Gaul – but Nicomedes subdued Caesar:
Behold now Caesar triumphs, who has conquered Gaul –
Nicomedes does not triumph, although he conquered Caesar.

According to Cassius Dio, this specific reference regarding King Nicomedes IV was the only verse that noticeably irritated Caesar, prompting him to issue a formal denial under oath, which critics felt merely drew further attention to the story.

Mass Public Spectacles and Games. Between the primary triumphal processions, Caesar hosted extensive public banquets. Records indicate that 22,000 individual dining tables were arranged across the city, providing citizens with fine foods and wines. Following the final banquet at nightfall, Caesar was escorted home in a nocturnal procession illuminated by twenty war elephants carrying large torches.

Theatrical and Athletic Contests. Public entertainments included theatrical performances across multiple venues. During one production, Caesar compelled the equestrian playwright Decimus Laberius to act on stage in his own play. Laberius, who resented the loss of equestrian status associated with public acting, delivered a pointed line to the audience: "He whom many fear, must therefore fear many," prompting the crowd to look toward Caesar. Following the performance, Caesar restored Laberius to the equestrian order by presenting him with 500,000 sesterces and a gold ring.

Venationes and Mock Battles. The public games also fulfilled a long-standing promise to hold funeral games in memory of Caesar's late daughter, Julia. Events included chariot races in the Circus Maximus, athletic competitions in temporary arenas on the Campus Martius, and gladiatorial combats in the Roman Forum. Over five days, specialized staged hunts (venationes) resulted in the slaughter of 400 lions, alongside the first public exhibition of giraffes in Rome. In addition to individual gladiatorial bouts, a staged combat featured two miniature armies, each composed of 500 infantrymen, 30 cavalrymen, and 20 war elephants. The games culminated in a simulated naval battle (naumachia) conducted on an artificial lake excavated along the right bank of the Tiber River.

Financial Distributions, Mutiny, and Political Realities. The scale of the celebrations attracted immense crowds to Rome, with visitors camping in public squares and along roadways. Suetonius records that the density of the crowds resulted in several fatalities by suffocation, including two Roman senators. The logistical and financial expenditures were substantial, driven both by the staging of the events and by direct monetary bonuses distributed to the military and civilian populations.

Distribution of Donatives. Caesar distributed generous financial donatives (donativa) to his soldiers and the civilian populace. Each veteran legionary received 5,000 denarii—an amount exceeding sixteen years of standard military pay. Centurions received 10,000 denarii, while military tribunes and cavalry prefects received 20,000 denarii each. In addition to rewarding the troops, Caesar extended direct financial relief to the urban plebs, granting 100 denarii to each eligible civilian along with allotments of grain and olive oil.

Unrest and Executions. The distribution of funds to civilians angered a portion of the troops, who viewed the public grants as a dilution of the spoils earned through military service. Combined with free alcohol and a holiday atmosphere, this resentment led to localized rioting among the troops. Caesar suppressed the unrest directly. He personally ordered the immediate execution of one rioter, while two others were ritually beheaded on the Campus Martius by the College of Pontiffs and the Flamen Martialis. The heads of the executed soldiers were subsequently displayed near the Regia in the Forum.

Conclusion of the Celebrations. Order was rapidly restored, allowing the triumphal period to conclude without further disruption. To enhance audience comfort during the summer heat, Caesar arranged for massive silk awnings (velaria) to be suspended over the outdoor theaters and spectator areas. The celebrations successfully projected the authority of the dictatorship, combining military power, public generosity, and visual propaganda to solidify Caesar's position in Rome.