Food Toxicology. Background. Historical. Multidisciplinary Field. Food Safety Regulations

A. Historical. Toxicology dates to the earliest humans who used animal venoms and plant extracts for hunting, waging war, and assassinations. Food toxicology also dates back to those times when hunters and gatherers observed that eating certain plants and animals made them ill or caused death and should be avoided as a source of food. Later, farmers observed toxic symptoms and death of livestock when fed or grazed on certain plants.

The Bible mentions that the Hebrews were punished with “quail meat between their teeth.” This gives the impression of a rather acute toxicity. It has now been observed that hemlock seed is practically harmless to quail, yet dogs fed this quail meat quickly developed symptoms with fatal results similar to humans poisoned with hemlock. In the first century AD, Pliny the Elder wrote: “So many poisons are employed to force wine to suit our taste—and we are surprised that it is not wholesome!”

The father of modern toxicology was M. J. B. Orfila, a Spaniard born on the island of Minorca in 1787. He studied chemistry and mathematics and subsequently medicine in Paris. Although his interests centered on the harmful effects of chemicals as well as therapy, he was the first to introduce quantitative methodology into the study of the actions of chemicals on animals. He was the author, in 1815, of the first book devoted entirely to studies of the harmful effects of chemicals. He could also be considered the father of modern food toxicology as his research concerned primarily naturally occurring substances in plants.

Many present-day hybrid food plants that are resistant to insects and disease have been bred from nonfood plants, within similar botanical families, containing naturally occurring toxicants (see Section IV,C). This may result or be part of the development of the plant’s resistance. The potential harmfulness and safety of many of these natural compounds in plant foods have yet to be completely identified and studied.

B. Multidisciplinary Field. Food toxicology is not only an applied science but also an art that demands scientific adaptability and flexibility. It is usually taught in departments of food science, nutrition, animal science, veterinary science, or entomology in a somewhat fragmented fashion. In some cases, food toxicology is taught as an outgrowth of traditional toxicology normally presented in departments of pharmacology within schools of medicine or pharmacy.

In other cases, food toxicology evolved from agricultural college laboratory research on pesticide chemistry and was taught as a part of food chemistry or applied biochemistry. Regardless of its origins or place of study, modern food toxicology borrows freely from several of the basic sciences. A knowledge of, and an ability to study, the interaction between chemicals in a food matrix and biological mechanisms is founded on a background from all of the basic physical, chemical, and biological subjects.

A broad training in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, statistics, physiology, pharmacognosy, nutrition, and public health affords individuals to have the ability and foresight to observe, investigate, and solve problems of toxicants in our foods as well as their mechanisms of action.

Food Safety Regulations.Early regulatory authorities focused much of their attention on adulterated food and drugs. Protective laws date back to India in 300 BC, where the first rules were written against the adulteration of grain, scents, and medicine. The first European law regulating some foods appeared in England in 1215 and in regulating the sale of bread in 1266.

General food protection laws were established in England, Germany, and Sweden between 1860 and 1870. However, a more comprehensive safeguard of public health was written into the Sale of Foods and Drugs Act in England in 1875, which was used as somewhat of a guide for the first food and drug laws passed by the United States Congress 31 years later.

National concern for food safety and protection of the public in the United States against misbranded and adulterated food resulted in the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. Research on food safety and food analysis prior to passage of this first food and drug law was published by Harvey W. Wiley, head of the chemistry division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). He used employees of the USDA as human subjects (the “poison squad”) to show widespread use of poisonous preservatives and dyes in foods.

These results, together with much publicity regarding filthy conditions in meat-packing plants and worthless or dangerous patent medicines, induced President Theodore Roosevelt and the Congress to pass these first food and drug laws. This Act has been amended, revised, or added to several times (i.e., in 1938, 1954, 1958, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1976, 1994, and 1996). The modern U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was established in 1931. Oversight for the safety of foods is provided by the FDA.

Tolerance limits (maximum permissible quantity) for pesticide residues, as well as approved pesticide use, on raw agricultural commodities and processed foods are established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The FDA has the authority to enforce, by seizure of the food products if necessary, the limits established by the EPA. The Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 replaced the 1958 Delaney Clause’s zero tolerance for cancer-causing pesticide or additive residues in foods. There is now a “reasonable certainty of no harm” standard.

Toxic air and water pollutants can be sources of numerous environmental contaminants in foods. The major federal law to combat air pollution is the Clean Air Act of 1970. Control of toxic effluents into the nation’s waters is addressed by the 1978 amended Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. EPA enforces all environmental laws.