Political Dynamics and Legislative Enactment in 59 BC

The Political Coalition and the Strategic Negotiation of the Agrarian Law. In December 60 BC, shortly before Julius Caesar assumed the consulship on 1 January 59 BC, Marcus Tullius Cicero received Lucius Cornelius Balbus, a Roman citizen from Gades in Spain who served as Caesar’s political agent. Balbus discussed the proposed agrarian law (lex agraria) that Caesar planned to introduce. Cicero, long opposed to land redistribution, faced three choices: oppose the bill, abstain from committing, or support it. Balbus assured Cicero that Caesar would respect his and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s opinions on every issue and attempt to reconcile Marcus Licinius Crassus with Pompey. In exchange for support, Cicero was offered an alliance with Pompey and Caesar, political reconciliation, popular goodwill, and personal security in his old age. Although Cicero had consistently supported Pompey, he remained a novus homo ("new man") vulnerable to senatorial opposition following his execution of the Catilinarian conspirators in 63 BC. Both Caesar and Pompey sought to leverage Cicero’s oratorical influence to secure the agrarian bill.

Formation and Structural Nature of the First Triumvirate. Cicero ultimately declined to commit himself to Caesar’s initiative. In response, Caesar finalized an informal, extra-constitutional alliance between Pompey and Crassus, historically known as the First Triumvirate. As the historian Suetonius noted, the alliance ensured that "nothing could be done in the Republic, which displeased any one of the three". Unlike the Second Triumvirate formed in November 43 BC between Mark Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, which held formal dictatorial power by law, the initial pact between Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar was informal and secret. Crassus had previously backed Caesar financially, guaranteeing massive debts that enabled Caesar to govern Further Spain (Hispania Ulterior). Pompey required a resolute consul to overcome conservative senatorial obstruction, secure land for his military veterans, and ratify his Eastern Settlement. Crassus sought financial relief for the publicani (tax collectors) of Asia, while Caesar needed powerful backers to secure a lucrative proconsular command following his year in office.

Historiographical Perspectives on the Triumvirate. The agreement among the three men was largely finalized after Caesar’s return to Italy in the summer of 60 BC and strengthened by his consular election victory. Cooperation became widely public in early 59 BC, prompting widespread outrage among conservative senators. Marcus Terentius Varro authored a pamphlet condemning the alliance as the "three-headed monster" (tricaranos). Plutarch argued that the alliance between Caesar and Pompey was the ultimate root cause of the civil wars that ended the Roman Republic. Cassius Dio noted reports of secret solemn oaths taken by the three men, a practice traditionally viewed by Romans as a sinister act comparable to the Catilinarian conspiracy.

Consular Procedure and Public Assembly Operations in 59 BC. On 1 January 59 BC, Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus assumed office as consuls. Caesar held electoral precedence and conducted the opening prayers and sacrifices for the year. Each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors carrying the fasces. As a gesture of respect, Caesar decreed that during months when Bibulus held precedence, Caesar's lictors would follow behind him, preceded only by an accensus (consular clerk). Additionally, Caesar instituted the publication of official proceedings of the Senate (Acta Senatus) and public assemblies (Acta Diurna) in the Roman Forum to ensure public transparency.

Drafting and Key Provisions of the Agrarian Law. Caesar presented his agrarian bill to the Senate in early January 59 BC. To ensure a vote in the Tribal Assembly (Comitia Tributa) during January while he held the fasces, rapid legislative action was required due to the mandatory 24-day public notice period (trinundinum). The bill included specific provisions designed to minimize political opposition:

· Exemption of State Domain Land: The fertile state land in Campania (ager Campanus), a vital revenue source for the Treasury (Aerarium), was explicitly exempted from redistribution.

· Protection of Private Property: Private property rights were respected, strictly prohibiting compulsory land expropriations.

· Voluntary Land Sales: Purchases were limited to willing sellers at prices recorded in the most recent census.

· Funding Sourcing: Funding was drawn from the revenue surpluses and war spoils generated by Pompey's military conquests.

· Land Use Restrictions: Land allotments were assigned to Pompey's military veterans and the urban poor, with a 20-year ban on land resale to ensure permanent settlements.

· Commission Administration: Land purchase and distribution were managed by a commission of twenty commissioners (vigintiviri), with an inner council of five members. Caesar was explicitly excluded from serving on the commission.

Senatorial Obstruction and the Filibuster of Cato. During senatorial debates on 2 January 59 BC, Crassus and Pompey openly approved the land bill. Most former consuls and praetors remained silent or unenthusiastic. However, when Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) was called to speak, he employed a prolonged filibuster, speaking without interruption until the end of the session to prevent a vote. In response, Caesar ordered his lictors to arrest Cato and take him to prison. The arrest caused public backlash among senators; Marcus Petreius famously left the Senate chamber, stating he would rather be in prison with Cato than in the Senate with Caesar. Realizing the political miscalculation, Caesar arranged for a tribune to release Cato, leaving the bill unvoted upon by the Senate.

Direct Popular Assembly Proceedings and Escalation of Conflict. Following the obstruction in the Senate, Caesar presented the agrarian bill directly to the Roman people in the Forum. Caesar summoned Bibulus to the Rostra to give his opinion in front of the crowd. Bibulus publicly rejected the bill, stating, "You shall not have this law this year, even if you all want it," and left the platform.

Endorsements and Public Threats at the Forum. Caesar subsequently called senior senators to endorse the bill. Both Crassus and Pompey voiced their full support. Pompey emphasized the necessity of providing land to his veterans and highlighted the financial revenues brought in by his eastern campaigns. When asked by Caesar how he would respond if opponents used force against the bill, Pompey publicly declared that if anyone "took up the sword" to stop the law, he was ready "with his sword and shield". Following the precedent set by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in 133 BC, Caesar scheduled a final vote in the Tribal Assembly for the end of January 59 BC.

Assembly Proceedings at the Temple of Castor and Pollux. On the day of the vote, supporters of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus—including veterans from Pompey’s army—positioned themselves in key areas around the Forum. A large crowd gathered in front of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, where Caesar addressed the assembly. Bibulus arrived accompanied by lictors, Cato, and three tribunes of the plebs, intending to veto the proceedings or announce unfavorable omens (obnuntiatio). Hostility erupted when Bibulus tried to speak against the bill. Bibulus was pushed down the steps of the temple, his lictors were overpowered, and his fasces were broken. Appian recorded that Bibulus bared his neck to the crowd, but the altercation resulted in a basket of dung being dumped over his head. Attendants and tribunes were injured by thrown missiles, though no fatalities occurred. Cato was removed from the assembly by supporters of Caesar after attempting to re-enter and speak.

Ratification and Mandatory Senatorial Oath. The Tribal Assembly formally passed the land law by a majority vote. The law contained an explicit clause requiring every senator to take a binding oath to abide by its terms, with non-compliance punishable by exile. Within five days, all senators took the oath. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer reluctantly acquiesced, while Cato was persuaded by Cicero that remaining in Rome was more beneficial to the state than facing exile. Bibulus convened the Senate on 1 February 59 BC to protest the violence and seek a decree (senatus consultum ultimum) against Caesar, but the Senate declined to take official action due to popular enthusiasm for the law.

Withdrawal of Bibulus and Subsequent Legislation. Following the Senate meeting, Bibulus retired to his private house for the remainder of his consular year, attempting to block public business by issuing formal notices of unfavorable omens (watching the skies) and placing public festivals on legislative days. Caesar ignored these declarations and continued legislative operations. The popular reaction was reflected in contemporary satire, which referred to the year as the "consulship of Julius and Caesar" rather than "Bibulus and Caesar," as recorded by Suetonius:

Not long ago an act was passed during Caesar’s year, not that of Bibulus. I don’t remember anything done in Bibulus’ consulate.

Throughout 59 BC, Caesar secured additional major legislative achievements:

· Ratification of the Eastern Settlement: Pompey’s administrative reorganizations in the eastern provinces were formally ratified by the Tribal Assembly.

· Publicani Tax Relief: Crassus secured a one-third reduction in the tax collection contract fees owed by the publicani in the province of Asia.

· Provincial Reform Law (Lex Julia de Repetundis): Caesar authored comprehensive legislation regulating the conduct of provincial governors, establishing severe penalties for extortion. Cicero later characterized it as an "excellent law".

· Recognition of Ptolemy XII: The Roman Republic formally recognized Ptolemy XII Auletes as King of Egypt following a payment of 6,000 talents (36 million denarii) to Pompey and Crassus.

Political Alliance through Marital Coalitions. In late April or early May 59 BC, political alliances were solidified through strategic marriages. Caesar married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso, securing a favorable candidate for the consulship of 58 BC. Simultaneously, Caesar’s daughter, Julia, was married to Pompey. To facilitate this marriage, Julia’s prior engagement to Quintus Servilius Caepio was broken; Pompey subsequently offered his own daughter, Pompeia, to Caepio. The marital alliance strengthened ties between Caesar and Pompey, ensuring political backing for Caesar's upcoming provincial command.